💧 Food, Water & Sanitation

1. Water Sourcing

Finding Water in the Wild

Water flows downhill. Head to valley floors, follow animal trails (they lead to water), and look for dense green vegetation. Insects and bird activity at dawn/dusk indicate water nearby.

• Moving water: Streams and rivers are preferable to standing ponds — less pathogen concentration, though not safe raw.
• Springs: Water emerging from rock or hillside is usually cleaner than surface water but still requires treatment.
• Dew collection: Tie clean absorbent cloth around ankles and walk through grass at dawn. Wring cloth into a container. Can yield 1–2 liters/hour in good conditions.
• Plant transpiration: Tie a clear plastic bag over a leafy green branch in full sun. 0.5–1L of water will collect in several hours.
• Snow and ice: Melt before consuming — eating snow lowers core body temperature. Do not eat ice directly in a survival situation.
• Cactus: Some cactus species (barrel cactus pulp squeezed) yield moisture. Caution — many cactus species cause nausea; saguaro and fishhook barrel are among the safer ones.

Well Digging Basics

A hand-dug well can reach groundwater at depths of 3–15m in many areas. Signs of shallow groundwater: surface moisture, lush vegetation, nearby streams that run year-round.

1. Choose a site at least 30m (100 ft) downhill/downwind from any latrine, septic, or animal pen.
2. Dig with a post-hole digger or shovel. Circle outward from center to maintain structural integrity.
3. Shore the walls with stone, brick, or wooden casing as you go to prevent cave-in.
4. Stop when water seeps in. Allow the well to fill. Bail out the first few fills to flush turbid water.
5. Build a cover and raise the casing 30cm above grade to prevent surface contamination.
6. Treat all water from new well for at least the first month — shock chlorinate with bleach and test quality.

2. Water Purification Methods

Each method has tradeoffs. Use multiple methods when possible — filter first, then disinfect.

Method 1: Boiling

The most reliable method requiring only fire. Kills all biological pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and protozoa.

• Pre-filter visibly turbid water through cloth to remove sediment before boiling.
• Allow to cool naturally — do not add ice (may recontaminate).
• Store in clean sealed containers.
• Flat taste after boiling? Pour between containers several times to re-oxygenate.

Method 2: Chemical Disinfection — Bleach

Household unscented bleach (sodium hypochlorite) is highly effective against bacteria and viruses. Less effective against Cryptosporidium (use boiling or filters for crypto-risk water).

Method 3: Iodine Tablets

Potable Aqua or similar iodine tablets. Effective against bacteria and viruses. Not effective against Cryptosporidium.

• 1 tablet per liter of clear water, 2 tablets for cloudy. Wait 30 minutes (cold water: 60 minutes).
• Vitamin C tablets neutralize iodine taste (add after wait time, not before).
• Caution — Not suitable for pregnant women, those with thyroid conditions, or extended use beyond several weeks.

Method 4: Solar Disinfection (SODIS)

Fill clear PET plastic bottles (1.5–2L max) with water. Shake to oxygenate. Lay on reflective surface in direct sunlight.

• Works best when UV Index is 3 or higher.
• Boil or add bleach after SODIS if the water will be stored more than 24 hours.
• Use only PET (#1) bottles, not polycarbonate or colored plastic.

Method 5: Improvised Filter

A layered filter removes sediment, some chemicals, and improves taste. Does not reliably remove viruses or bacteria — must be followed by chemical treatment or boiling.

Method 6: Distillation

The only method that removes all contaminants including heavy metals, salt, and chemical pollutants. Essential for seawater or chemically contaminated water.

1. Boil contaminated water in a covered pot with a tube leading from a hole in the lid to a collection container.
2. The tube should pass through cool water or a cold, damp cloth to condense steam into liquid.
3. Collect the condensate — this is purified water.
4. Note: Distillation removes minerals. Long-term, add a pinch of salt per liter to prevent electrolyte depletion.

3. Water Storage

Container Selection

• Food-grade HDPE (#2 plastic): Blue 55-gallon drums are the standard. Approved for water contact.
• Glass: Does not leach chemicals but breaks. Good for small quantities.
• Stainless steel: Excellent but expensive. Avoid galvanized (zinc leaches).
• WaterBOB / bathtub bladder: 100-gallon emergency reservoir — fills from bathtub faucet before crisis.
• Avoid: Milk jugs (HDPE #2 but thin walls, residual milk proteins), old soda bottles (fine short-term), colored or opaque bottles of unknown type.

Long-Term Storage Protocol

1. Use only food-grade containers that have never held non-food liquids.
2. Clean thoroughly with dish soap, rinse 3×, then sanitize with 1 tsp bleach per liter of water. Let sit 30 minutes, rinse once.
3. Fill with treated tap water (municipal water is already safe). For well water, add 8 drops of bleach per gallon before storing.
4. Store in a cool, dark location away from direct sunlight and chemicals (gasoline, paint, etc.). Temperature fluctuations accelerate container degradation.
5. Label each container with fill date. Rotate every 6–12 months.
6. Keep containers off concrete floors (use pallets) to avoid off-gassing from concrete into plastic.

4. Rainwater Collection

Basic Catchment System

Yield Calculation

Collection area (sq ft) × Rainfall (inches) × 0.623 = Gallons collected

Example: 500 sq ft roof × 1 inch rain × 0.623 = 311 gallons per inch of rain

A 2,000 sq ft roof in an area receiving 40 inches of annual rain can collect ~49,840 gallons/year — far more than most households need.

Maintenance

• Clean gutters and screens monthly
• Inspect first-flush diverter after each rain event
• Check storage tanks for algae, sediment, mosquito larvae quarterly
• Disinfect tanks annually with bleach solution (1 tsp per gallon, wait 12 hours, drain, refill)
• Treat all collected rainwater before drinking (sediment filter + boiling or bleach)

5. Food Preservation

The goal: extend shelf life by removing or controlling moisture, oxygen, heat, and microbial growth. Each method suits different foods.

Pressure Canning

The only safe method for low-acid foods (meat, vegetables, beans, soups). Botulism spores survive boiling — they require 240°F (115°C), achievable only under pressure.

Water-Bath Canning (High-Acid Only)

Safe for: fruits, jams, jellies, pickles, tomatoes with added acid (pH < 4.6). Submerge jars in boiling water for specified time per recipe.

Pressure Canning (Low-Acid)

• Use a USDA-approved pressure canner (not just a pressure cooker).
• Process at 10 PSI (adjust for altitude: +1 PSI per 2,000 ft above sea level).
• Follow tested recipes — do not improvise processing times.
• Inspect seals after cooling: lid should be concave, ring firm. Any flex = failed seal.

Salt Curing & Brining

Salt draws out moisture (osmosis) and creates an inhospitable environment for bacteria. Used for meat, fish, and some vegetables.

Smoking

Heat + smoke kills surface bacteria and reduces moisture. Cold smoking (below 90°F/32°C) primarily adds flavor and preservative compounds but does not cook — must be combined with curing. Hot smoking (165–185°F/74–85°C internal temp) cooks the food.

• Woods to use: Apple, cherry, hickory, oak, alder. Avoid pine, cedar, resinous softwoods (toxic compounds).
• Smoke fish 2–4 hours at 145°F (63°C) internal. Jerky: 160°F (71°C) for poultry, 165°F (74°C) for wild game.
• Properly smoked and dried meat lasts 1–3 months without refrigeration.

Fermentation

Beneficial bacteria convert sugars to lactic acid, creating an acidic, self-preserving environment. No cooking or special equipment needed — just salt, vegetables, and time.

Dehydration

Remove moisture to below 10% and microbial growth halts. Dried food is lightweight, compact, and lasts years if stored properly.

• Sun drying: Slice food thinly (4–6mm). Lay on clean racks in direct sun with airflow. Cover with fine mesh to keep insects out. Turn daily. Takes 1–5 days depending on food and weather. Requires 95°F+ and low humidity.
• Fire/smoke drying: Hang strips above (not in) a fire or use indirect heat from coals. Keep temperature around 140–160°F (60–71°C).
• Improvised solar dryer: A black-painted box with a glass/plastic top concentrates heat. Reaches 140–160°F in full sun.
• Test for dryness: Meat should crack, not bend. Vegetables should crumble or be leathery with no soft spots.
• Storage: Seal in airtight containers with oxygen absorbers. Keep dark and cool. Properly dried vegetables: 1–2 years. Jerky: 1–2 months at room temp, 1 year frozen.

6. Foraging — Wild Edible Plants

Universally Safe Edibles (Low Misidentification Risk)

Mushroom Safety

Beginner-Safe Mushrooms with Few Deadly Lookalikes

• Giant puffball (Calvatia gigantea): White, football-sized to car-sized. Slice in half — flesh must be pure white throughout (no internal structure, gills, or color). Any other color = not this species, don't eat.
• Chicken of the Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus): Bright orange/yellow shelf fungus on trees. No dangerous lookalikes (though can cause reactions in some people, especially when growing on certain trees like locust).
• Chanterelle (Cantharellus spp.): Golden, funnel-shaped, false gills (forked ridges). Main lookalike is Jack-O-Lantern (Omphalotus olearius) — brighter orange, true gills, grows in clusters at tree bases, glows faintly in dark. Chanterelles don't glow.
• Hen of the Woods (Grifola frondosa): Overlapping gray-brown fronds at base of oaks. Excellent, distinctive.
• Morel (Morchella spp.): Honeycomb cap, hollow stem. Learn the false morel distinction (wrinkled/saddle-shaped, not honeycomb). Morels must be cooked — raw morels are mildly toxic.

What to Avoid

• White or yellow umbrella-shaped mushrooms — high risk of Amanita genus
• Berries: White, yellow, and red berries are high risk. Blue/black berries are generally lower risk but still require ID.
• Anything in the carrot/parsley family unless you are expert-level — Water Hemlock and Poison Hemlock look similar to edible Angelica, Wild Carrot, and Wild Parsnip.
• Anything with milky sap (unless you're certain it's a known safe species like dandelion)

7. Hunting & Trapping

Primitive Traps

Trapping is far more efficient than active hunting — multiple traps work simultaneously while you do other tasks. Set 10+ traps to reliably catch 1–2 animals per day.

Simple Snare

• Set snares on active trails (look for tracks, droppings, fur on branches).
• Support the loop with a small twig to keep it at the right height.
• Don't leave human scent — handle with gloves or rub with dirt/natural materials.

Deadfall Trap (Figure-Four)

Box Trap (Humane / Catch-Alive)

Build a wooden box with a hinged door held open by a bait-stick trigger. When animal takes bait, stick falls, door closes. Advantages: reusable, no snare skill needed, can transport live animal. Use for rabbits, squirrels, large rodents.

Field Dressing Game

Process immediately after kill — heat accelerates spoilage. Work cleanly to avoid contaminating the meat with gut contents.

1. Hang the animal upside down by hind legs from a branch if possible — aids drainage.
2. Remove the skin: Make a shallow cut around each ankle, slit up the inside of the legs to the center. Grip the skin and pull downward — it usually peels off in one piece on rabbit/squirrel.
3. Open the body cavity: Pinch the belly skin away from organs (so you don't pierce them), make a shallow cut from sternum to pelvis. Avoid cutting intestines.
4. Remove organs: Reach in and pull out all organs. Set aside heart and liver if they look healthy — these are nutritious and safe to eat (cook thoroughly). Discard the rest.
5. Clean the cavity: Wipe with a clean cloth or rinse with clean water. Remove any debris or contamination.
6. Inspect: Look for abscesses, unusual growths, discolored organs, or parasites. Isolated cysts in small animals may be parasites — discard the affected organ; the meat is usually still safe when cooked.
7. Cool immediately: Hang in shade with good airflow, or submerge in cold stream. Process or preserve within 24 hours in warm weather, 48 hours in cool weather.

8. Passive Fishing

Fishing is the highest-return survival food source per unit of effort — because the best methods work while you sleep. Active rod-and-line fishing ties up a person for hours; passive methods (set lines, traps, nets) are deployed once and harvest around the clock, freeing you for other work. A handful of set hooks and a fish trap can out-produce a hunter for a fraction of the calories spent.

Trotline (Set Line)

The workhorse of passive fishing: a strong main line stretched across or along a body of water, with many short branch lines ("snoods"), each ending in a baited hook.

1. Run a heavy main line between two banks, or from a bank anchor out to a weight/float. Keep it taut.
2. Every 60–90 cm, tie on a short dropper line (20–40 cm) with a baited hook. Stagger hook depths to cover bottom, mid-water, and surface feeders.
3. Weight the main line so hooks sit at fish level; add a float to mark position and keep tension.
4. Bait with worms, insects, cut fish, liver, or dough. Check every few hours — rebait, remove catch, and watch for line damage.

Jug Line / Limb Line

• Jug line: a baited hook and line hung from a floating sealed bottle. Drop several into a lake; a bobbing or travelling jug means a fish is on. Drifting jugs cover water a fixed line can't.
• Limb line: a single baited line tied to a springy overhanging branch above the water. The branch acts as a shock absorber and sets the hook when a fish takes. Ideal along wooded banks — quick to set, nothing to carry.

Fish Traps & Weirs

• Funnel (basket) trap: a woven cylinder with an inward-pointing funnel mouth — fish swim in following bait and can't find the small opening to leave. Weave from green willow/withies or build from a bottle for minnows. Bait and submerge near cover.
• Stone or stake weir: a low barrier built in shallow flowing water that funnels fish into a holding pen or trap as they move downstream — especially effective during spawning runs and tidal changes. Labour-intensive to build, but harvests passively for seasons once made.

Gill Net

A near-invisible mesh net hung vertically in the water by floats on top and weights on the bottom. Fish swimming into it are caught by the gills. The single most productive passive method where legal and available — a few metres of net set overnight across a channel or along weed beds can feed a group. Mesh size selects fish size. Check frequently in warm water so the catch doesn't spoil.

9. Sanitation Without Running Water

Disease — not violence — is the primary killer in disaster scenarios. Cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis A spread through fecal contamination of water and food. Maintaining sanitation saves lives.

Latrine Construction

Simple Cat-Hole (Short-Term, 1–3 People)

Dig a hole 20–30cm (8–12 inches) deep. After use, cover with soil. Do not dig in the same area until previous cat-holes have composted (minimum 6 months in warm climates).

Slit Trench Latrine (Emergency, Group)

Dig a trench 30cm wide × 1m deep × 1m per 6 people. Provide a cover (board, soil pile alongside) to fill in after each use. When full within 30–45cm of surface, fill completely and mark the area. Dig a new trench.

Pit Latrine (Long-Term)

• Add a small amount of ash, sawdust, or dry soil after each use to control odors and aid composting.
• Add a tight-fitting lid to reduce fly access (flies spread disease from feces to food).
• When pit is 50cm from full, cover completely and dig a new one 3m away. Mark old pit.
• Humanure (properly composted) can be used in gardens after 1 year — on fruit trees and non-root vegetables only.

Greywater Management

Greywater (from washing, cooking) is less dangerous than blackwater but still carries bacteria. Route away from water sources.

• Simple soak pit: Dig a 1m × 1m × 1m pit filled with gravel and rocks. Route sink/wash water into pit via pipe or channel. Soil filters and microbes treat the water as it percolates.
• Keep grease and food scraps out of greywater — they clog systems and attract vermin.
• Use biodegradable soap when possible. Avoid antibacterial soaps (they disrupt beneficial soil microbes).

Hand Hygiene Without Running Water

• Tippy-tap: A foot-operated water dispensing system. A jug of water suspended from a branch, tipped by pressing a foot pedal (stick attached to jug by cord). Delivers a small stream of water for handwashing without touching the water source.
• Use soap (even improvised soap: rendered fat + lye from wood ash) and scrub for 20 seconds.
• Alcohol hand sanitizer: Effective if 60%+ alcohol. Requires no water. Stock generously. Can be made from high-proof spirits (70%+ isopropyl or 95% grain alcohol diluted to 70%).
• Wash hands: After toilet, before eating/cooking, after handling animals or raw meat, after caring for sick individuals.

Makeshift Soap

1. Leach lye from hardwood ash: pour water through ash, collect the leachate (lye solution). The water should be strong enough to float an egg or feel slippery (caustic — handle carefully, avoid skin contact).
2. Render animal fat: heat fat scraps with water, skim off the fat layer, repeat until fat is clear and odorless.
3. Combine lye water and rendered fat in roughly equal volumes. Cook in a pot over low heat, stirring constantly, until mixture reaches "trace" (leaves a ribbon on the surface when drizzled).
4. Pour into molds. Allow to cure for 4–6 weeks in a dry location before use.

Disease Prevention Summary

10. Growing Your Own Food

Stored food has a finite end date. Foraging and hunting are unreliable at scale. The only sustainable long-term food solution is cultivation. A 1,000 sq ft (93 m²) intensively managed garden can supply 50–75% of the vegetables for one adult year-round in a temperate climate.

Soil Preparation

Everything depends on soil. Poor soil produces poor food. Invest in soil quality before seeds.

Soil Assessment

• Texture test: Grab a handful of moist soil and squeeze. Sandy soil crumbles immediately; clay holds its shape and feels plastic; loam (ideal) holds shape but breaks apart with light pressure.
• Drainage test: Dig a 30cm (12") hole, fill with water, time how long it takes to drain. 1–3 inches/hour is ideal. Slower = drainage problem; faster = won't hold moisture.
• pH estimation: Mix soil with vinegar — fizzing indicates alkaline (pH >7). Mix soil with baking soda + water — fizzing indicates acidic (pH <6). Most vegetables prefer pH 6.0–7.0.

Soil Amendment

Building a Compost System

1. Ratio: 3 parts brown (dead leaves, straw, cardboard, wood chips) to 1 part green (kitchen scraps, fresh grass, manure). Too much green = slimy, smelly. Too much brown = slow, dry.
2. Maintain moisture like a wrung-out sponge — not dripping, not dry.
3. Turn the pile every 1–2 weeks to introduce oxygen. Without turning, composting takes 6–12 months. With weekly turning, 4–8 weeks.
4. Finished compost is dark, crumbly, and smells like earth — not rot.
5. What NOT to compost: meat, dairy, diseased plants, pet waste (dog/cat — can carry pathogens).

Seed Selection & Saving

Highest-Priority Crops by Category

How to Save Seeds

1. Select the healthiest, most productive plants for seed saving — never save from diseased or weak plants.
2. Allow fruit to fully ripen on the plant (much riper than eating stage) before harvesting seeds.
3. Dry seeds thoroughly — at least 2 weeks in a single layer in a cool, airy location. Seeds must be completely dry or they will mold in storage.
4. Store in airtight containers (glass jars with lids, Mylar bags) with oxygen absorbers in a cool, dark, dry location. Freezing (below -20°C/-4°F) extends viability to decades for most species.
5. Label: species, variety, date saved, source. Unlabeled seeds are nearly worthless.

Crop Rotation

Growing the same plant family in the same location every year depletes specific nutrients and builds up soil pathogens. A 4-bed rotation prevents this:

• Leaves (brassicas: cabbage, kale, broccoli): heavy nitrogen users
• Fruits (tomatoes, peppers, squash): heavy feeders, follow legumes
• Roots (carrots, beets, turnips): need loose soil, light feeders
• Legumes (beans, peas): fix nitrogen — leave them last so the next crop benefits

Companion Planting

Water-Efficient Irrigation Without Infrastructure

1. Ollas (clay pot irrigation): Bury an unglazed clay pot to its neck in the soil and fill with water. Water seeps slowly through the clay directly to root zones — 70% more efficient than surface watering. Cover the top to prevent evaporation.
2. Wicking beds: A raised bed with a sealed reservoir of water in the bottom layer (gravel + plastic liner). Soil wicks moisture up by capillary action. Can go 5–7 days without refilling.
3. Mulching: 4–6 inches of straw, wood chips, or dried leaves around plants reduces soil evaporation by 70%. Apply after rain when soil is moist.
4. Swales: Level trenches dug along the contour of a slope. Capture and infiltrate rainwater into the ground, reducing runoff. Plant fruit trees on the downhill bank of each swale to access deep moisture.
5. Water in the morning: Evaporation rates are lowest. Avoid watering in the heat of the day or at night (fungal disease).

11. Nutritional Deficiencies

In a prolonged emergency, macro-calorie supply usually dominates concern — but micronutrient deficiencies can develop within weeks and cause serious illness long before starvation. Knowing what to look for and which locally available foods address each deficiency is a critical survival skill.